Invisible Foes: The Microbial War Behind Napoleon’s Retreat
In the winter of 1812, Napoleon’s Grande Armée met its most devastating enemy—not the Russian army, but biology itself.
As starvation, exhaustion, and freezing temperatures ravaged the troops, invisible microbial forces finished what warfare began.
Through ancient DNA analysis, scientists have uncovered the true pathogens behind the empire’s collapse, revealing that Napoleon’s defeat was as much a biological catastrophe as a military one.
In June 1812, Napoleon invaded Russia, leading his Grande Armée of about 680,000 men.
The Russians, avoiding confrontation, retreated eastward while employing a scorched-earth policy that left the advancing French army without food or shelter.
After a bloody but indecisive victory at Borodino, Napoleon entered a burning Moscow in September, only to find it abandoned and set aflame on orders from its governor.
With winter closing in and Alexander refusing peace, Napoleon was forced to withdraw in October.
Author's summary: Napoleon's defeat was a biological catastrophe.
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